, with 4-month reactivity predicting Mangafodipir (trisodium) price inhibited behaviors in early childhood (Calkins et al., 1996; Fox et al., 2001; Kagan et al., 1998). However, the infant measures do not predict inhibited behaviors at 4 years (Fox et al., 2001; Kagan et al., 1988a) or anxiety in adolescents (Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009), which is not surprising given that both emotions and emotion regulation appear at different stages across development (Rothbart et al., 2000). In contrast, assessments performed between 2 and 4 years of age predict inhibited behaviors between 4 and 11 years of age (Asendorpf, 1994; Kagan et al., 1988b; Scarpa et al., 1995).Prog Neurobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 April 01.Clauss et al.PageImportantly, these childhood differences in temperament also predict long-term psychiatric outcomes. Inhibited children have increased rates of anxiety disorders (Biederman et al., 2001, 1993; Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009; Clauss and Blackford, 2012; Essex et al., 2010; Hirshfeld-Becker, 2010; Hirshfeld et al., 1992; Schwartz et al., 1999). The increased risk is substantial; in a recent meta-analysis, we found that inhibited temperament was associated with a seven-fold increase in odds and a four-fold increase in risk for developing social anxiety disorder (Blackford and Clauss, 2013; Clauss and Blackford, 2012). Almost half of inhibited young children (43 ; 107/246 children) developed social anxiety disorder by adolescence, compared to about 1 in 10 control children (see Figure 1; 13 ; 57/446). Not all inhibited children develop anxiety and risk is highest in children who remain highly inhibited throughout childhood (Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009; Essex et al., 2010). The link between inhibited temperament and anxiety has been most commonly investigated–possibly because anxiety disorders occur quite early in development–however inhibited temperament also confers heightened risk for a broad spectrum of psychopathology, including depression (Caspi et al., 1996; Gladstone et al., 2005; Gladstone and Parker, 2006), substance-use problems (Lahat et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2010), and schizophrenia (Goldberg and Schmidt, 2001; Jetha et al., 2013). As such, we propose that inhibited temperament is one of the strongest predictors of later psychopathology. 1.1. Temperament Measurements and Constructs Temperament reflects emotional and behavioral tendencies that are relatively stable across time and context. Inhibited temperament has been measured using one or more of the following measurements: behavioral observations, parent report, or self-report. In infants and young children, behavioral assessments of inhibited behavior are most common and developmental stages typically guide both the type of novel stimuli and the behaviors measured; for example, crying or clinging to the mother in the presence of an unfamiliar adult in toddlers (Garcia-Coll et al., 1984), latency to speak to an unfamiliar experimenter in preschool children (Kagan et al., 1998), and shy behavior with peers in older children (Kagan et al., 1988b). However, laboratory measures of temperament are limited to specific time points and contexts, which may not capture the child’s behavior in daily life. Parents, who Procyanidin B1 biological activity observe their children across time and in many contexts, have advantages in reporting on their child’s behavior, motivating most researchers to collect parent information in addition to behavioral measures (Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009; Garcia-Coll et al., 1984., with 4-month reactivity predicting inhibited behaviors in early childhood (Calkins et al., 1996; Fox et al., 2001; Kagan et al., 1998). However, the infant measures do not predict inhibited behaviors at 4 years (Fox et al., 2001; Kagan et al., 1988a) or anxiety in adolescents (Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009), which is not surprising given that both emotions and emotion regulation appear at different stages across development (Rothbart et al., 2000). In contrast, assessments performed between 2 and 4 years of age predict inhibited behaviors between 4 and 11 years of age (Asendorpf, 1994; Kagan et al., 1988b; Scarpa et al., 1995).Prog Neurobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 April 01.Clauss et al.PageImportantly, these childhood differences in temperament also predict long-term psychiatric outcomes. Inhibited children have increased rates of anxiety disorders (Biederman et al., 2001, 1993; Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009; Clauss and Blackford, 2012; Essex et al., 2010; Hirshfeld-Becker, 2010; Hirshfeld et al., 1992; Schwartz et al., 1999). The increased risk is substantial; in a recent meta-analysis, we found that inhibited temperament was associated with a seven-fold increase in odds and a four-fold increase in risk for developing social anxiety disorder (Blackford and Clauss, 2013; Clauss and Blackford, 2012). Almost half of inhibited young children (43 ; 107/246 children) developed social anxiety disorder by adolescence, compared to about 1 in 10 control children (see Figure 1; 13 ; 57/446). Not all inhibited children develop anxiety and risk is highest in children who remain highly inhibited throughout childhood (Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009; Essex et al., 2010). The link between inhibited temperament and anxiety has been most commonly investigated–possibly because anxiety disorders occur quite early in development–however inhibited temperament also confers heightened risk for a broad spectrum of psychopathology, including depression (Caspi et al., 1996; Gladstone et al., 2005; Gladstone and Parker, 2006), substance-use problems (Lahat et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2010), and schizophrenia (Goldberg and Schmidt, 2001; Jetha et al., 2013). As such, we propose that inhibited temperament is one of the strongest predictors of later psychopathology. 1.1. Temperament Measurements and Constructs Temperament reflects emotional and behavioral tendencies that are relatively stable across time and context. Inhibited temperament has been measured using one or more of the following measurements: behavioral observations, parent report, or self-report. In infants and young children, behavioral assessments of inhibited behavior are most common and developmental stages typically guide both the type of novel stimuli and the behaviors measured; for example, crying or clinging to the mother in the presence of an unfamiliar adult in toddlers (Garcia-Coll et al., 1984), latency to speak to an unfamiliar experimenter in preschool children (Kagan et al., 1998), and shy behavior with peers in older children (Kagan et al., 1988b). However, laboratory measures of temperament are limited to specific time points and contexts, which may not capture the child’s behavior in daily life. Parents, who observe their children across time and in many contexts, have advantages in reporting on their child’s behavior, motivating most researchers to collect parent information in addition to behavioral measures (Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009; Garcia-Coll et al., 1984.
