nuclear lumen and nucleoplasmic reticulum, the latter two have been suggested to increase/enhance signals initiated in the cytoplasm, and/or generate its own Ca2+ transients. Additionally, the amplitude and duration of calcium signals have also been shown to differentially AG-1478 price control activation of transcription factors. For instance, transcription factors, such as NF-kB, c-Jun, and N-terminal kinase are activated by transient increases in Ca2+. Taken together, data herein, and by our colleagues, emphasize a secondary GPCR signaling network at the nucleus, which may ensure, or enhance, the communication and coordination of numerous biochemical signals that are critical in regulating tumorigenic paradigms within the cell. In conclusion, the 
data presented provides the first clear evidence of CXCR4 located at the nucleus of cancer cells and existing as a functional, ligand-responsive receptor in advanced metastatic PCa cells. Therefore, antagonizing the action of nuclear CXCR4 could provide a rational approach to the prevention and management of PCa metastasis. Lee et al. described a unique survival system in breast cancer cells by 1467843 which VEGF acted as an intracrine survival factor through its binding to nuclear VEGFR1. This theory may hold true for tumor cells that express CXCR4 at the nucleus, and secrete SDF1a from the same cell. This study is significant to therapeutic development, as a functional CXCR4 receptor that can initiate signaling from inside the cell may escape from chemotherapeutic agents that are designed to antagonize the PM receptor, and/or cannot pass through the hydrophobic regions of the PM to reach nuclear receptors. Acknowledgments We are grateful to Drs. Shafiq A. Khan, Center for Cancer Research and Therapeutic Development at Clark Atlanta University and Ying-Hao Sun, Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Shanghai, China for providing RWPE1 cells and pEGFPN1-CXCR4 plasmid construct, respectively. We thank Dr. Jaideep Chaudhary, Dr. Peri Nagappan and Mr. Tony Griffin, Clark Atlanta University, and Dr. Dezhi Wang, University of Alabama, Birmingham, for research support and technical assistance. We are also grateful to Drs. Anita H. Corbett, Department of Nuclear CXCR4 in Metastatic Prostate Cancer Cells Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Hava K. Avraham, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Marilyn E. Thompson Odom, Belmont University School of Pharmacy, and Ifeanyi J. Arinze, Meharry Medical College for research support, guidance and mentoring. Alzheimer’s disease, the most frequent form of senile dementia associated with progressive neurodegeneration, is characterized by extracellular amyloid plaques, intra-neuronal tangles, and cerebrovascular amyloid deposits. The extracellular plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid deposits contain amyloid b proteins, primarily Ab40 and Ab42, which are derived from the larger endogenously occurring amyloid precursor protein. The extracellular amyloid plaques are predominantly formed in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex and other brain regions important for cognitive function; whereas, the cerebrovascular amyloid deposits are formed in the media and adventitia of small and mid-sized arteries and arterioles present in the cerebral cortex and leptomeninges, 15997236 as well as cerebral capillaries, resulting in a condition known as cerebral amyloid angiopathy . Both AD and CAA are causatively linked. About 80% of AD patients were reported to manifest
